Ian & Stuart's Australian Mac: Not for Sale/Another.not.for.sale (Australia).iso/fade into you/being there/Resource Guides/CMC/internet-cmc.bib

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Selected Readings in Computer-Mediated Communication, Communication Theory,
Computer Networks, and the Internet
================================================================================
Author:     John December ([e-mail])
Date:       21 October 1993
COPYRIGHT:  (c) 1993 by John December ([e-mail]).
            Permission to use for non-commercial, educational purposes.
            This copyright and permission notice must appear in all copies.
            Permission is also granted to mention, cite, refer
            to, or describe this document in commercial books,
            products, or online services (but not to reproduce in whole
            or in part without permission.)
DISCLAIMER: Provided "as is" without expressed or implied warranty.
            I make no representations about this document's suitability,
            accuracy, or stability.
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This is a selected listing of items related to Computer-Mediated
Communication, the Internet, and network information infrastructure and
use.

These items were on my qualifying exam reading list for the doctoral
program in Communication and Rhetoric at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute.
I took these exams in September, 1993.

The first sections describe what the articles and books are about.
Following these sections is the full bibliography.

Comments are welcome.

This file's updates: ftp://ftp.rpi.edu/pub/communications/internet-cmc.bib

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Contents

1  Explaining Computer-Mediated Communication
   1.1  Meta-theories
   1.2  Conceptualizations of Computing
   1.3  Theories, Models, Typologies and Propositions
   1.4  Innovation Diffusion/Media Choice and Adoption/Critical Mass
        1.4.1 Critical Mass Theory
   1.5  Information/Media Richness
   1.6  Social/Psychological Factors
   1.7  Social Presence Model
   1.8  Reduced Social Cues (RSC) Approach
   1.9  Social Identity Theory and De-individuation Processes (SIDE) Model
   1.10 Social Information/Influence/Context Model
   1.11 Language Aspects/Rhetorical
   1.12 Media Characteristics / Media Evolution

2  Studies and Applications of Computer-Mediated Communication
   2.1  Studies
        2.1.1 Comparing CMC with FTF
        2.1.2 Socioemotional Content in CMC
   2.2  Computer-Mediated Scholarship/Education
   2.3  CMC Infrastructure
        2.3.1 Forums and Tools
        2.3.2 Networks

3  Organizational Communication
   3.1  Theory
        3.1.1 Structure/Functions of Organizations
        3.1.2 Human Relations
        3.1.3 Communication as Process of Organization
        3.1.4 Adaptive Structuration Theory
        3.1.5 Organizations as Cultures
        3.1.6 Network Analysis
   3.2  Studies of Organizations
   3.3  Technology/Communication in Organizations
   3.4  Organizational CMC
   3.5  CSCW
        3.5.1 GDSS

   Bibliography

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1    Explaining Computer-Mediated Communication

1.1   Meta-theories

* Rice (1992) recursively summarizes material from CMC reviews. Main
  point: "Even a general awareness of the diversity of these contexts, much
  less the numerous studies associated with the various contexts, should
  obviate the easy and ill-formed introduction found in many CMC studies,
  that `there is little theoretical or empirical research in this area.' "
* Rice (1989a) asserts that we need to integrate CMC research around
  four themes: stakeholders, goals, domains, and tools. Main point: [p. 436]
  Integrate CMC research across disciplines/tech/research processes via
  stakeholders, goals, analytical domain, and tools.


1.2   Conceptualizations of Computing

* Mowshowitz (1981) describes five positions underlying
  conceptualizations of computing: technicism, progressive individualism,
  elitism, pluralism, radical criticism.
* Hirschheim (1985) describes underlying epistemological and ontological
  stances in office automation research.
* Turkle (1982) talks about how we project our ideas onto computers.


1.3   Theories, Models, Typologies and Propositions

* Burge (1992) presents a detailed bibliography for current literature in
  distance education and CMC.
* Rice (1992) recursively summarizes material from CMC reviews. Main
  point: "Even a general awareness of the diversity of these contexts, much
  less the numerous studies associated with the various contexts, should
  obviate the easy and ill-formed introduction found in many CMC studies,
  that `there is little theoretical or empirical research in this area.' "
* Hacker and Monge (1988) describes theory of
  communication/information models and designs of CMC systems.
* Johnston (1989) comments on Rice's article on issues and concepts in
  research on CMC.
* McCreary (1990) describes three behavior models for CMC.
* Rice and Boan (1985) describes journals about CMC.
* Culnan and Markus (1987) describes media use factors. Main point:
  CMC is low in social presence (no noverbal); therefore, it is task-oriented
  and impersonal.
* Bowers (1992) claims artifacts have politics by analyzing formalisms of
  design or implementation. Main point: "If we are to take computer
  technology seriously, we will have to abandon innocent humanism in
  favor of a cyber politics."
* Cathcart and Gumpert (1983) talk about mediated interpersonal
  communication.
* Feenberg (1986) presents an operating manual for computer
  conferencing.
* Ghani (1988) describes flow theory in CMC.
* Kuehn (1990) asserts that play theory explains CMC as "communication
  play" when communicators can alter interaction and achieve goals.



1.4   Innovation Diffusion/Media Choice and Adoption/Critical Mass

* Rogers (1983) describes the diffusion of innovations.
* Rogers (1986) describes impacts of innovations.
* Grantham and Vaske (1985) summarizes factors affecting
  diffusion/adoption of the technology.
* Leonard-Barton (1988) describes role of implementation process in
  innovation diffusion.
* Markus (1987) describes diffusion and adoption of interactive media
  systems in terms of critical mass.
* Markus (1990) describes critical mass theory for interactive media,
  which directs attention away from the individual to the community level
  of analysis.
* Miles (1992) reviews issues of applying CMC to publishing and
  interpersonal communication on national scales (Britain, France).
* Thompson (1975) describes idea of "electronic hallway" as facilitating
  group formation and operation.
* Turoff (1989)
* Korzenny (1978) presents a theory for electronic closeness in
  organizations.
* Alexander, Penley, and Jernigan (1991) explores the effects of
  differences in how managers choose media.
* Ebadi and Utterback (1984) describes how communication affects
  technology use.


1.4.1  Critical Mass Theory

  A threshold model that explains how use develops in a community.
* Markus (1987) describes diffusion and adoption of interactive media
  systems in terms of critical mass.
* Markus (1990) describes critical mass theory for interactive media,
  which directs attention away from the individual to the community level
  of analysis.
* Oliver, Marwell, and Teixeira (1985) explains critical mass theory.
* Valente (1991) describes thresholds for critical mass in innovation
  diffusion.



1.5   Information/Media Richness

  Reduce ambiguity through media selection.

* Daft and Macintosh (1981)
  describes information richness theory in organizations.
* Daft and Lengel (1984) applies media richness theory to organizations.
  Main point: [p. 194] "organizational success is based on the organization's
  ability to process information of appropriate richness to reduce
  uncertainty and clarify ambiguity."
* Daft and Lengel (1986) describes theory of media richness used in
  organizations.
* Daft, Lengel, and Trevino (1987) uses media richness model applied to
  message equivocality and media selection.
* Trevino, Daft, and Lengel (1990) describes the use of symbolic
  interactionism to understand managers' media choices in terms of message
  equivocality, contextual determinants, and media symbolism.
* Trevino, Lengel, Bodensteiner, Gerloff, and Muir (1990) [p. 176] "This
  article proposes a new thesis about the role of individual differences in
  managers' media choice behavior." Main point: Media preferences operate
  when equivocality is low; in high equivocality situations, there is an
  imperative to use rich media.
* Trevino, Lengel, and Daft (1987) describes media richness theory in
  organizations.
* Rice and Shook (1990a) explores job categories and organizational levels
  and communication channels, including email.
* Lengel and Daft (1988) gives guidelines for managers selecting media.
* Duncan (1972) explains characteristics of an organization versus
  perceived environmental uncertainty


1.6   Social/Psychological Factors

* Kiesler, Siegel, and McGuire (1984) describes social and psychological
  affects of CMC.
* Boshier (1990) discusses social/psychological factors in electronic
  networking, focusing on email role in adult education, identifying research
  and theory. Main point: Electronic networks can help adult education
  and lifelong learning because they help increase interaction, provide for
  equal opportunity, and create a noncoercive, nonhierarchical, reciprocal
  environment.
* Cathcart and Gumpert (1985) communicating through computer creates
  interpersonal communication dyad (user & computer).
* Kling and Gerson (1977) explores social context features of CMC
  affecting communities of users.
* McGuire (1983) describes contextualism as a counterpoint to
  empiricism.
* Short, Williams, and Christie (1976) describes social presence theory for
  analyzing mediated communication. Main point: [p. 65] "We hypothesize
  that communications media vary in their degree of Social Presence, and
  that these variations are important in determining the way individuals
  interact."


1.7   Social Presence Model

* Short, Williams, and Christie (1976) describes social presence theory for
  analyzing mediated communication. Main point: [p. 65] "We hypothesize
  that communications media vary in their degree of Social Presence, and
  that these variations are important in determining the way individuals
  interact."
* Bales (1950)
* Short (1974) compared FTF, sound only, and CCTV communication to
  test social presence hypothesis about persuasion.
* Johansen (1977) uses social presence model to examine social aspects of
  teleconferencing.


1.8   Reduced Social Cues (RSC) Approach

  Basic Thesis: CMC features (reduced social/context cues) lead to
  psychological states (reduced impact of social norms and constraints)
  which undermine social, normative influences leading to deregulated
  behavior.

* Kiesler (1986) describes how the social effects of computers
  may be greater and more important than you imagine. Main point: [p.
  46] Computers have social effects, cut down hierarchies, cut across norms
  and organization boundaries.
* McGuire, Kiesler, and Siegel (1987) explores influence of group
  communication and group decision processes on group decisions.
* Siegel, Dubrovsky, Kiesler, and McGuire (1986)
* Sproull and Kiesler (1986) analyzes e-mail use and characteristics in an
  organization.
* Siegel, Dubrovsky, Kiesler, and McGuire (1986)
* Rutter (1987) describes "cueless model" for communicating by
  telephone.
* Morley and Stephenson (1977) discuss bargaining, test out cueless
  model.
* DeSanctis and Gallupe (1987) apply cuelessness to study of GDSS.


1.9   Social Identity Theory and De-individuation Processes (SIDE) Model

* Spears and Lea (1992) explores the social/psychological dimensions of
  CMC: email and CC vs. FTF via Social Identity Theory and
  De-individuation Processes (SIDE) Model.
* Spears, Lea, and Lee (1990)
* Diener (1980) discusses de-individuation in groups.
* Festinger, Pepitone, and Newcomb (1952) describes de-individuation in
  a group.
* Lea and Spears (1991a)
* Lea and Spears (1991b)


1.10    Social Information/Influence/Context Model

  Media perceptions and use are socially constructed.

* Fulk, Schmitz, and
  Steinfield (1990) proposes a model for technology use which is based on
  social context effects: social influence model of media use. Main point:
  [p. 121] Basic assumption of social influence model of media use: media
  perceptions are subjective/social constructed.
* Fulk, Schmitz, and Schwartz (1992) develop CMC context themes and
  propose a perspective on social context and context-behavior relations.
* Fulk, Steinfield, Schmitz, and Power (1987) explores social information
  processing as a model for media use.
* Bem (1972) describes attribution theory.
* Chesebro (1985) describes CMC used in interpersonal contexts by
  studying a BBS.
* Feenberg and Bellman (1990) social factors model posits that distinctive
  organizational features guide the design of CC systems.
* Feenberg (1989) asserts that types and use of CMC systems must be
  based on the sociology of the group.
* Feenberg (1992) traces the success of the French Teletel (Minitel)
  videotex system in France.
* Gattiker (1992c) suggest directions for future research in
  technology-mediated communication.
* Georgoudi and Rosnow (1985) describes contextualism from the
  perspective of the nature of context (as opposed from mechanistic
  assumptions). Main point: Contextualism is marked by recognizing
  communication as a process embedded in a constantly changing, cultural,
  cognitive, and social context.
* Hellerstein (1986) presents study of social uses of CMC at
  UMass-Amherst; CMC mediates and facilitates social life.
* Schmitz and Fulk (1991) describes media richness, social influence
  theory applied to organizations.
* Matheson (1991) examines the extent to which social perceptions in
  CMC are influenced by social information availability and based on
  internalized social expectations.
* Salancik and Pfeffer (1978) describes social information processing
  theory.
* Smilowitz, Compton, and Flint (1988) CMC changes the way people
  interact, accomplish comm. tasks.
* Lea (1992) introduces book on contextual influences on CMC.
* Martin, O'Shea, Fung, and Spears (1992) surveys 'flaming' phenomenon
  in CMC.
* Bandura (1986) describes social learning theory.
* Montes (1992) questions social presence theory, suggests interaction to
  be creator of context.
* Perry (1988) discusses use of contextualist approach to media effects.
* Thomas and Griffin (19XX) reviews literature on social information
  processing model.
* Tushman and Nadler (1978) puts forth an information processing model
  for organizations.


1.11    Language Aspects/Rhetorical

* Baron (1984) describes CMC as a force in language culture.
* Ferrara, Brunner, and Whittemore (1991) describes interactive written
  discourse (IWD, the written language occurring in simultaneous
  terminal-to-terminal typed dialogues.)
* Finnegan (1988) describes how literacy and orality are affected by
  communication technology.
* Lakoff (1982) Oral is becoming more valued than literacy, writing
  imitates oral.
* Murray (1991) describes the composing process for computer
  conversation.
* Ochs (1989) explores language use and culture.
* Ong (1977) Technology changed culture and thought.
* Ong (1982) Thought and expressed changed in the shift from orality to
  literacy.
* Shank (1993) argues network communication is not oral or written but
  semiotic.
* December (1993a) compares net discourse in USENET newsgroup with
  characteristics of orality as defined by Walter J. Ong. Main point: The
  discourse on the Internet brings back pre-literate characteristics; it is a
  tertiary form of orality (the first two being, pre-literature culture and
  widespread radio and tv broadcasting).
* Shaver (1990) describes measures of reliability and validity of attitude
  measures of writing with a computer.
* Spitzer (1986) describes writing style in computer conferences.
* Tannen (1982) Oral/literate continuum = focus: involvement & context
  v. content.
* Thompson (1988) describes how interactive networking can be used for
  speech, writing, and composition.
* Black, Levin, Mehan, and Quinn (1983) describes real and non-real time
  discourse.
* December (1994) discusses and analyzes the strategies communicators
  can use to exchange information on global computer networks. Main
  point: The communicator's task in creating and structuring information
  has always included considerations of purpose and audience. In
  communicating over networks, however, the communicator's task includes
  considerations of the nature of the medium_distribution, access,
  information-sharing practices, and social context.


1.12    Media Characteristics / Media Evolution

* Fowler and Wackerbarth (1980) studies audio teleconferencing in
  comparison with FTF conferencing.
* Innis (1972) explores roles of media as used by different civilizations.
  Main point: Media use and forms (bias and emphasis) contribute to
  civilization and political structures of societies.
* Harnad (1991) asserts that the fourth cognitive revolution is electronic
  communication.
* Havelock (1986) traces how writing transformed Greek culture from
  orality to literacy.
* Levinson (1986) describes McLuhan's ideas with regard to computer
  conferencing.
* Levinson (1990) sees CMC as an ongoing evolution of media: speech,
  writing, printing, telecommunications.
* McLuhan and Powers (1989) describes the idea of the global village
  transforming life and media.
* McLuhan (1964) explores the extensions of people through media. Main
  point: Media's characteristics create and operate in a social and historical
  context; electric technologies create an emphasis on effect and total
  involvement.
* McLuhan (1965) Technology revises the linearism of print. Main point:
  "The Gutenberg Galaxy is intended to trace the ways in which the forms
  of experience and of mental outlook and expression have been modified,
  first by the phonetic alphabet and then by printing."
* McLuhan and Fiore (1967) asserts that media extends consciousness.
  Main point: [p. 26] "All media work us over completely. They are so
  pervasive in their personal, political, economic, aesthetic, psychological,
  moral, ethical, and social consequences that they leave no part of us
  untouched, unaffected, unaltered. The medium is the massage. Any
  understanding of social and cultural change is impossible without a
  knowledge of the way media work as environments."
* Rice and Associates (1984) summarizes research dealing with computers
  and communication.
* Schement and Lievrouw (1987) describes assumptions of information
  society research.
* Smith (1980) traces development and transformation of newspaper
  markets and audiences.
* Stewart (1992) describes a study of voice mail (VM) revealing innovation
  reasons. Main point: Need to have user involvement in development,
  prototype, selection, planning, and implementation of an innovation.
* Thomas and Miles (1989) describes the development of telematics in the
  United Kingdom.
* Vallee (1982) presents perspectives on the network revolution.
* Williams and Rice (1983) talk about personal relationships in CMC.


2    Studies and Applications of Computer-Mediated Communication

2.1   Studies

* Komsky (1991) [p. 310] "examines factors that differentiate among
  frequent and occasional users of electronic mail, for the purpose of
  developing a profile of users to help organizations develop strategies for
  increasing system usage."
* Hiltz and Turoff (1978) surveys effects of CMC on people.
* Hiltz and Turoff (1993) surveys effects of CMC on people, revised
  edition of 1978 edition.
* Chesebro and Bonsall (1989) describes computerized communication as
  widespread, altering human communication patterns and culture.
* Dennis, Nunamaker, and Vogel (1990) compares laboratory and field
  research in the study of electronic meetings.
* Steinfield (1986a)
* Adkins (1991) shows that recipients of email messages did not perceive
  the sender as self-absorbed (egocentric-like).
* Adrianson and Hjelmquist (1988) reports questionnaire study of COM
  system showing how COM system showed spontaneity, aggression; judged
  efficient as a tool for sending and receiving simple messages.
* Adrianson and Hjelmquist (1991) reports study which shows FTF
  communication induced more conformity and opinion change than CMC.
* Anderson and Jay (1985) uses network analysis to examine the adoption
  of a computerized information system by physicians.
* Beals (1990) studied transcripts of computer conferences on Beginning
  Teacher Computer Network (BTCN).
* Bresler (1990) found significant differences between males and females
  in a high school electronic communication.
* Finholt, Sproull, and Kiesler (1990) examines use of electronic mail in
  student work groups, where groups had similar tasks but used email to
  different degrees. The paper speculates on the larger organizational
  implications.
* Gerola and Gomory (1984) studied engineer's use of networks, found no
  improvement in work.
* Grint (1989) explores issues in CMC participation: fear of public
  ridicule, status, gender, technical expertise.
* Guallupe and McKeen (1990) investigates use of decision support
  systems for face-to-face versus remote meetings.
* Hartman, Neuwirth, and Kiesler (1991) describes patterns of social
  interaction and network technology effects on learning to write.
* Hiemstra (1982) describes teleconferencing and organizational culture.
* Hiltz and Johnson (1989) measures acceptance of CMC systems in
  terms of use, subjective satisfaction, and benefits. Main point: "The
  findings suggest that future studies of CMCS's in particular, and perhaps
  computer-based information systems in general, should not assume that
  usage alone or subjective satisfaction alone are adequate measures of
  successful implementation."
* Hiltz and Johnson (1990) Measures user satisfaction with CMCs.
* Hiltz and Turoff (1981) explores behavior of users in CMC systems.
* Hiltz and Turoff (1985) describes how to structure CMC systems to
  avoid information overload.
* Hiltz, Turoff, and Johson (1981) describes the effects of task and
  individual attributes on consensus in computer conferences.
* Hiltz (1989) measures acceptance of CMC systems.
* Johansen, Vallee, and Spangler (1979) presents how electronic meetings
  can extend communication.
* Kerr and Hiltz. (1982) analyzes CMC systems' acceptance and affects.
* Kiesler, Obrosky, and Pratto (1987) describes the effects (attentional,
  social contact, belief) of computer use.
* Kiesler and Sproull (1987a) describes social effects of computer use:
  more interaction, broader social
* Kiesler and Sproull (1987b) describes computing as a combination of
  social+cultural+tech and its effects indirect, unpredictable.
* Kiesler and Sproull (1987c)
* Kiesler, Zubrow, Moses, and Geller (1985) findings show that CMC,
  "rather than provoking emotionality per se, elicits asocial or unregulated
  behavior."
* Lea (1991) presents results that "suggest that the group of users
  construed CMC mainly in terms of its attributes as a medium for
  conversation and social interaction."
* Lerch (1988)
* Mabrito (1991) describes email for peer response and compares high-
  and low-apprensive writers.
* Mason (1989) presents findings showing CMC is marginally beneficial
  for some students but very valuable for others in getting information and
  maintaining contact.
* Matheson (1992) examines the social psychological impacts of CMC on
  women.
* Matheson and Zanna (1988) describes impact of CMC on self-awareness.
* McCreary (1989) describes how users experienced positive contribution
  of CMC, but not unequivocal.
* Rafaeli (1986) explores, through surveys and content analysis, BBS use.
* Rice (1982) describes a longitudinal study of group roles and system
  structure for a computer conferencing system.
* Rice (1988) uses network approach to gether data from communication
  system networks.
* Rice and Borgman (1983) discusses issues in collecting data from CMC
  systems.
* Rice and Case (1983) describes use and utility of computer-based
  messaging in a university.
* Riedl (1989) discusses patterns in computer-mediated discussions.
* Riel and Levin (1990) describes success and failures in forming electronic
  communities, suggests a set of guidelines for creating online communities.
* Rojo (1991) describes patterns of CMC usage and explores ways to
  describe users; explores dynamics of online communication.
* Safyeni, Lee, and MacGregor (1988)
* Shamp (1991) discusses perception of CMC partners.
* Smeltzer (1992) evaluated electronic messages for structure, length,
  complexity, and readability.
* Smolensky, Carmody, and Halcomb (1990) shows how task type, group
  structure, and extroversion affected uninhibited speech in CMC.
* Steinfield (1986b) concludes that email use is best predicted by
  infrastructure, positive orientation, and need.
* Thorn and Connolly (1987) explains why people contribute to a public
  database.
* Trevino and Webster (1992) discusses flow in CMC, focusing on email
  and voice mail.
* Turoff and Hiltz (1988)
* Vallee, Johansen, obert Randolph, and Hastings (1974) describes social
  effects of group communication via computers.
* Vallee (1984) describes computer messaging systems.
* Weedman (1991)
* Wilkins (1991)
* Williams (1977) describes different models for communication, including
  rational choice/media use models.
* Zimmerman (1987) analyzed disturbed adolescents' communication
  patterns; CMC was positively expressive of feelings and interpersonal
  issues and diminished gender differences.
* Boshier (1990) discusses social/psychological factors in electronic
  networking, focusing on email role in adult education, identifying research
  and theory. Main point: Electronic networks can help adult education
  and lifelong learning because they help increase interaction, provide for
  equal opportunity, and create a noncoercive, nonhierarchical, reciprocal
  environment.
* Markoff (1993) describes Internet Talk Radio, a broadcast show on the
  Internet, available in the U.S., Europe, and Japan. Main point: The
  Internet is large and growing fast and using new media: a broadcast
  sound show has started.
* Coombs (1993) reflection on experiences using CMC in teaching.
* Archee (1993) reports on using computer conferencing to teach small
  group communication and writing/rhetoric.
* Day (1993) describes computer-mediated software design (CASE).
* Loperfido (1993) studies how the introduction of an email system affects
  ways in which employees in an organization communicate.
* Herring (1993) explores computer discussion lists for occurrence of
  gender differences in participation. Main point: While CMC promises
  equal participation, domination by males was observed in discussion lists.
* Olaniran (1993) "investigates how perceived computer mediated
  communication (CMC) system attributes and individual characteristics
  (e.g., gender) affect users' perception of five communication outcome
  variables (user satisfaction, decision confidence, immediacy, effectiveness,
  and ease of use of the system) across three CMC systems."
* Phillips and Eisenberg (1993) studies email use in a research institution.
* Shedletsky (1993) explores the use of computer-mediated
  communication (CMC) to augment seminar participation and active
  thinking in a college seminar.


2.1.1  Comparing CMC with FTF

* Adrianson and Hjelmquist (1993) compares face-to-face and CMC with
  regard to memory of texts.
* Dubrovsky, Kiesler, and Sethna (199X) talks about status effects in
  CMC versus FTF decision-making groups.
* Short (1974) compared FTF, sound only, and CCTV communication to
  test social presence hypothesis about persuasion.

2.1.2  Socioemotional Content in CMC

  Socioemotional content in CMC

* McCormick and McCormick (1992)
  explores content of undergraduate electronic mail.
* Rice and Love (1987) indicates that CMC systems can facilitate
  socioemotional content and network roles don't differ in percentage of
  socioemotional content.
* Walther and Burgoon (1992) describes relational communication in
  CMC.
* Walther (1992) asserts that CMC is expressive/relational: by
  accumulated verbal, textual cues.
* Hellerstein (1985) describes social use of CMC in a university.
* Phillips (1983) finds there is emotion (love/hate, spontaneity, creativity)
  in CCs.


2.2   Computer-Mediated Scholarship/Education

* Amiran and Unsworth (1991) explains development of Postmodern
  Culture: design decisions, considerations for integrity and needs of
  audience.
* December (1993b) explores current use of CMC for scholarship, suggest
  three possible approaches: systems, tools, and ad hoc. Main point: The
  directions for CMS include: 1) recognizing CMC and NIR tools as a
  progression in media evolution; 2) identifying needs and level of
  commitment to CMS; 3) matching these needs and commitment to
  technology using a systems-oriented, tools-oriented, or ad-hoc approach;
  and 4) supporting research in CMC and related user-interface issues.
* Harasim (1989) asserts that the CMC domain is unique (asynch, geo
  independence, many:many) and needs new mindsets for use.
* Harasim (1990a) introduces online education.
* Harasim (1990b) asserts that current CMC systems help communicate
  and generate ideas; but we need tools for linking ideas.
* Harrison and Stephen (1992) describes how Comserve provides a model
  for ways of on-line scholarship.
* Harrison, Stephen, and Winter (1991) maintains that an electronic
  journal has to fit its disciplines practices and needs.
* Hiltz (1992) describes the Virtual Classroom(TM), a CMCS for
  collaborative learning.
* Kaye (1989) asserts that CMC is a new educational paradigm- and
  presents a resource approach to its use in distance education.
* King (1991) describes the impact of networking on the delivery of
  scholarly information.
* Lynch (1992) presents ideas about the crisis in scholarly communication
  and networked information. Main point: [p. 111] "My personal view is
  that our primary objective must be to make the transition to a networked
  information environment."
* Mason and Kaye (1989) describes how CMC can be used in distance
  education.
* Mason and Kaye (1990) describes a paradigm for distance education.
* Michelson and Rothenberg (1992) trends in info technology and
  scholarly practices demand new services from the archival community.
* Okerson (1991) explores the electronic journal.
* Okerson (1992) describes publishing on the network.
* Rawlins (1992) there are opportunities for electronic publishing to lower
  costs and speed up distribution.
* Reich (1992) describes a discipline-specific literature base.
* Strangelove (1993) observes that ejournals are becoming more
  widespread; trend toward simultaneous print and electronic versions of
  journals
* Turoff and Hiltz (1982) presents a progress report on electronic journals.
* Bailey and Rooks (1991) discusses role of librarian in providing access
  to electronic resources.
* Dillon (1993) describes result of project for library services on the
  Internet.
* Duggan (1991)
* Paulsen (1993) six features must be considered in developing a DE
  program based on CC: freedom of time, space, pace, medium, access, and
  curriculum.
* Piternick (1991) presents human factors likely to influence adoption of
  electronic journals.
* Powell (1993) describes a simply-implemented UNIX system for
  supporting electronic journals.
* Pullinger (1986) describes how computer conferencing supports scientific
  communication.



2.3   CMC Infrastructure

2.3.1  Forums and Tools

* Bush (1945) describes memex, a personal system for information.
* December (1992) describes sources of information about: the Internet
  and services, information services/electronic publications, societies and
  organizations, newsgroups, and a selected bibliography. Main point:
  There is a variety of information sources about the Internet and CMC.
* December (1993c) describes sources of information about: the Internet
  and services, information services/electronic publications, societies and
  organizations, newsgroups, and a selected bibliography.
* December (1993d) summarizes Internet NIR tools, CMC forms, and
  Services, giving a summary, action using described notation, pointer to a
  demonstration, and pointer to documentation.
* Banks (1992) tells how easy it is to have portable PC communications
  over networks.
* Bowman, Danzig, and Schwartz (1993) describes issues of supporting
  future information infrastructure: current tools (Archie, Gopher, etc) are
  not ready for larger data volume, user base, and data diversity.
* CERN (1992) describes the WWW project.
* Foster, Brett, and Deutsch (1993) presents a report cataloging
  Networked Information Retrieval (NIR) tools. Main point: There are a
  variety of tools available.
* Hahn (1993) summarizes use of UNIX with computer communication
  and Internet services.
* Kapor (1991) explores legal issues of networks.
* Kehoe (1992) describes basic Internet services and the background of
  the Internet.
* Kerr (1986) presents a guide for moderating an online conference.
* Krol (1992) describes the uses of Internet tools as well as Internet
  resources.
* Meckler (1993) describes Electronic Journals, Newsletters, Books, and
  Discussion Lists on the Internet.
* Negroponte (1991) Networks will free us from space and time
  constraints.
* Rapaport (1991) presents comprehensive overview of CMC Systems
  from design and implementation perspective.
* Rose (1993) describes Internet mail and network issues in general.
* Schwartz, Emtage, Kahle, and Neuman (1992) presents a taxonomy of
  approaches to resource discovery giving insight into problems of
  organizing, browsing, and searching for information.
* Smith (1993) describes tools for discover (archie, gopher, vernoica, wais,
  www, hytelnet) and how these are being used together.
* Stephen and Harrison (1989)
* Sudweeks, Collins, and December (1993)
* Yanoff (1993) describes telnet, ftp, and finger information services on
  various subjects on the Internet.


2.3.2  Networks

* Cerf (1991) describes how networks are growing larger and faster.
* Malamud (1992a) describes the people and networks on the Internet the
  author encounters in three round-the-world trips.
* Malamud (1992b) This book looks at the question of interoperability in
  computer nets/how to turn components into a computing environment
  through tailoring.
* Dern (1992) The Internet is now widespread, growing larger.
* Dertouzos (1991) describes how fusing computing with communication
  infrastructure can transform society.
* Glossbrenner (1990) Tells details of how to access and about PC online
  services.
* Gore (1991) describes his vision for an information infrastructure.
* Hancock (1990) Technical details of computer network communication.
* Kahin (1992) describes how to build an information infrastructure
  through the NREN.
* Kahn (1992) describes infrastructure for national information.
* LaQuey (1990) describes global computer networks.
* Lottor (1992) describes the growth of the Internet from 1981 to 1991.
* Lucky (1991) We have a dream to join collectively, electronically, to
  create a global "town commons... a virtual coffeeshop."
* Lynch (1993) summarizes the evolution of the Internet.
* Mabrito (1990) lists 49 resources for CMC research, showing findings,
  pedagogical approaches, and theory.
* McClure, Bishop, Doty, and Rosenbaum (1991) presents an overview of
  the NREN research, policies, and technologies.
* Quarterman (1990) describes how the metanetwork of computer
  networks will be as pervasive as the phone network (p. 3).
* Maule (1993) discusses structural and organizational issues of CMC
  infrastructure.
* Dunning (1992)
* Grycz (1992) describes economic models for
  networked information. describes infrastructure for information society.
* Codex (1992) presents an introduction to computer communication and
  networks.
* Sitzler, Smith, and Marine (1992) describes how to build a network
  information infrastructure.



3    Organizational Communication


3.1   Theory

* Morgan (1986) presents metaphors for organizations: machine,
  organism, brain, culture, political system, psychic prison, flux and
  transformation, instrument of domination. Main point: You can view an
  organization in many different ways built on images, assumptions, and
  metaphors.
* Euske and Roberts (1987) examine implications for organizational
  communication contained in seven categories of organization theory:
  classical, human relational, behavioral decision theories, systems theory,
  resource dependency, population ecology, and institutional. Main point:
  Organizations are dynamic processes that interact with their
  environments.
* Perrow (1979) discusses complex organizations.
* Putnam and Pacanowsky (1983) describes interpretive approach to
  organizational communication.


3.1.1  Structure/Functions of Organizations

  Organizations studied in terms of function and structure, focusing on
  power, authority, and legitimacy.
* Weber (1947) describes classical
  organizational theory.
* Farace, Monge, and Russell (1977) describes a systems approach to
  communicating in organizations.


3.1.2  Human Relations

  Tenents: productivity determined by social norms, non-economic rewards
  are important, workers react as group member versus individuals,
  leadership is important, communication as facilitator of decision making.
* Fulk and Boyd (1991) describes theories of communication in
  organizations.
* Likert (1967) describes communication and human relation perspective
  of organization.
* Peters (1992) describes how empowering people helps (human relations
  perspective).
* Peters (1982) describes how empowering people helps (human relations
  perspective).


3.1.3  Communication as Process of Organization

  Communication is organization.

  Weick (1979) describes how to look at
  and think about organizations. Main point: An organization is because of
  its organizing process.
* Galbraith (1977) describes horizontal view of information processing in
  organizations. Main point: Information exchange should take place in
  organizations to reduce uncertainty because of diversity, task variability,
  or interdependence.
* Daft and Weick (1984) describes a model for organizations as
  interpretation systems in four modes: enacting, discovering, undirected
  viewing, and conditioned viewing. Main point: [p. 294] Organizations can
  develop workable information from scraps.
* Zuboff (1984) describes computer use and changing technology, in the
  workplace.
* Manning (1992) describes organizational communication theory and
  field studies from an organizing (reducing equivocality through
  interlocking behaviors) perspective.


3.1.4  Adaptive Structuration Theory

  There is a mutually causal relationship between context and action.

* Contractor and Eisenberg (1990) explores the interplay between
  social environment
  and application of communication technologies in organizations.
* Poole and DeSanctis (1990) Describes adaptive structuration theory in
  group decision support systems.
* Poole, McPhee, and Seibold (1982) interaction is creator of context in
  communication, not medium


3.1.5  Organizations as Cultures

  Organizations create a shared reality, produced by interactions, practices,
  ways of understanding.
*  Smircich (1983a) discusses organizations as
  systems of shared meanings. Main point: Organizations are systems of
  shared meanings created by symbolic processes.
* Smircich (1983b) explores organizations as cultures. Main point: People
  enact their organizational reality through shared meaning; studying this
  requires using empathy, involvement, and use of self as research
  instrument.
* Pacanowsky and O'Donnell-Trujillo (1982) describes organizations as
  organizational cultures; explores how theory and research constrains
  questions, describes organizational perspectives questions and utilities.
  Main point: Communication is the way organizations create a web of
  interlocked actions.


3.1.6  Network Analysis

* Rogers (1987) uses network analysis approach to look at relationships
  and electronic communication technologies.
* Monge and Contractor (1987) describes how to identify and measure
  information flow between people, about a variety of topics, using a variety
  of media.
* Monge and Eisenberg (1987) examines how emergent communication
  networks influence and are influenced by new media in organizations.
* Rice (1990) discusses CMC as a process of convergence and interaction
  using the network convergence paradigm.
* Rice and Aydin (1991) describes structural, relational and physical
  proximity among groups in CMC.
* Rice and Barnett (1985) describes how to study group communication
  in a network environment using metric multidimensional scaling.
* Tichy (1981) uses metrics to measure networks.
* Wellman (1988) describes network approach to analyzing social
  structures.
* Wigand (1988) describes procedures and methods for analyzing
  communication networks in organizations.



3.2   Studies of Organizations

* Kent and McGrath (1969) explores task and group characteristics that
  influence performance.
* Sanders and Baron (1977) describes social comparison theory applied to
  group shifts.
* Harrison (1987) describes writing in organizational contexts.
* Steiner (1972) describes theory of process loss and gains.
* Tang (1991)



3.3   Technology/Communication in Organizations

* Steinfield and Fulk (1987) describes the role of theory in research on
  information technologies in organizations.
* Steinfield and Fulk (1990)
* Allen (1984) describes goal of volume: to
  "provide foundation for theory development on information technology in
  organizations" [p. 15]. describes the flow of technology in organizations.
* Beniger (1990) describes a theory of information technology as
  organization, and organization as information technology.
* Conger (1992) studies relationship between task complexity, culture
  toward technology and coordination methods (meetings, phone, email,
  etc) by studying finance personnel.
* Gattiker (1992a) summarizes this volume on technology-mediated
  communication.
* Gattiker (1992b) introduces this book series on technology-mediated
  communication.
* Hiemstra (1983) describes use of info tech in organizations.
* Hullin and Roznowski (1985) describes how technology effects
  organizations.
* Markus and Robey (1988) explores social effects in theory and research
  in information technology and organizations.
* Markus (1983) describes interactionist theory for humans confronting
  technology.
* Nass and Mason (1990) considers broad base of technologies in the
  organization/technology interface.
* Orlikowski (1992) explores concepts of technology in organizations.
* Rogers (1988) describes how logical expectations for media use are not
  met.
* Zmud, Lind, and Young (1990)
* Clement (1988) surveys office automation and control of information
  workers. Main point: [p. 218] Information workers are subject to greater
  managerial control through information systems.
* Allen and Hauptman (1987) describes the influence of communication
  technologies on organizational structure for providing state-of-the-art
  information and coordination across technical specialties.
* Allen and Hauptman (1990) demonstrate how organizational info
  processing can be modified to account for new communication options in
  R&D settings.
* Feldman and March (1981) describes how management reflects need to
  appear competent and legitimate.
* Keen (1988)
* Leifer (1988) describes how to match communication information
  systems with organizational structures.
* Papa and Tracy (1988) discusses CMC communication network features.



3.4   Organizational CMC

* Steinfield (1992) describes directions for theory and research in CMC in
  organizations.
* Danowski and Edison-Swift (1985) describes effects of
  intraorganizational computer communication.
* Hiltz, Johson, and Turoff (1986) surveys experiments in group decision
  making; compares group problem-solving for FTF and CMC for
  qualitative and scientific rankings test.
* Huber (1990a) we need to re-examine theory for small group interaction
  in computer-supported context.
* Huber (1990b) analyzes capabilities of new decision technologies and
  how these are relevant to existing organizational theories.
* Johansen and DeGrasse (1979) describes effects of computer-based
  teleconferencing on working patterns.
* Johansen, DeGrasse, and Wilson (1978) describes effects of group
  communication via computers on working patterns.
* Nunamaker, Dennis, Valacich, Vogel, and George (1991) describes
  electronic meetings in support of group work.
* Nunamaker, Applegate, and Konsynski (1987) presents experiences with
  group support systems for facilitating creativity.
* Rice (1980) reviews CMC research conducted in the 1970's.
* Rice (1987) asserts that CMC provides organizations ways to enhance
  resourcefulness and responsiveness.
* Rice (1989b) explores use of CMC in organizations, finds more exchange.
* Rice and Shook (1990a) explores job categories and organizational levels
  and communication channels, including email.
* Rice and Steinfield (1990) describes new forms of organizational
  communication by email and voice messaging.
* Siegel, Dubrovsky, Kiesler, and McGuire (1986)
* Valacich, Dennis, and J. F. Nunamaker (1991)
* Zachary (1986)
* Zmud (1979) describes individual differences approach to explaining
  human behavior when confronted with technology.
* Crowston, Malone, and Lin (1988) presents a case study of
  organizational design for computer conferencing.
* Finholt and Sproull (1990) re-examine theory of small groups when
  using computer support.
* Murphy (1992) describes a case history illustrating how
  information-processing system fits organizational requirements.



3.5   CSCW

* Applegate (1991) sets theory foundation for group work in organizations.
* Galegher and Kraut (1990) sets forth the research and design issues of
  cooperative work.
* Greenberg (1991a) defines groupware and CSCW and introduces volume
  on CSCW and groupware.
* Acker (1992) describes a GDSS which facilitates collaborative fiction.
* Garcia-Luna-Aceves, Craighill, and Lang (1988) explores MOSAIC, a
  model for CSCW providing a share view.
* Greenberg (1991b) presents annotated bibliography and description of
  information sources for CSCW and groupware.
* Grief (1988) presents readings in CSCW
* Gutek (1990) describes how group must fit technology to task structure.
* Hiltz, Turoff, and K. (1989) presents experiments in group decision
  making
* Hiltz (1984) describes the complex technological and social variables in
  CMC acceptance.
* Johansen (1988) describes groupware for business teams.
* Johnson-Lenz and Johnson-Lenz (1982) defines the term groupware.
* Kraemer and L (1988) describe group decision support systems,
  evaluate experience, benefits, barriers.
* Opper and Fersko-Weiss (1992) describes how technology can enhance
  productivity for teams in organizations.
* Rice and Shook (1990b) describes how group must fit technology to task
  structure.
* Rothschild and Whitt (1986) describes cooperative work.
* Sproull and Kiesler (1991b) describes how networked communication
  and information will transform organizational behavior.
* Sproull and Kiesler (1991a) asserts that CMC leads to more discussion,
  equality, emotions, creativity.
* Stefik, Foster, Bobrow, Kahn, Lannry, and Suchman (1988) describes
  computer support for collaboration and problem-solving in meetings.
* Stodolsky (1993) describes the USENET comp.groupware newsgroup.
* Turoff (1991)
* Ellis, Gibbs, and Rein (1991)
* Pinsonneault and Kraemer (1989) describes empirical research into the
  impact of technological support for groups.


3.5.1  GDSS

* Kraemer and Pinsonneault (1990) describes how group must fit
  technology to task structure. Main point: There is a lack of research in
  group processes support.
* DeSanctis and Gallupe (1987) apply cuelessness to study of GDSS.
* Smith and Vanecek (1988) describes computer conferencing and
  task-oriented decisions.
* Watson, DeSanctis, and Poole (1988) describes how logical expectations
  are not met for media adoption.



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